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分类‘Secret Sauce - L1’的存档

Secret Sauce笔记 Fix income derevative and alternative investments

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zero-coupon bonds,到期付par value,中间不付息,所以高折价发行,一般用半年期折现
accrual bonds,类似zero coupon,以par value发行,有coupon rate,按利息按复利,到期结算
step-up notes,coupon rate逐渐上涨
deferred-coupon bonds,第一次付息推迟。

浮息债券
new coupon rate=reference rate+-quoted margin,upper limit 叫cap,lower limit叫floor,组合叫collar

accrual bonds在付息日之间交易,有clean price和full price,计算交易日为止未付的利息。

Bond中的Option
call feature,发债人可以以高于par value的价格买回,在call protection时期不能买回。
prepayment option,允许发债人提前支付本金给amortizing security
put feature,允许bondholder 提前收回principal
conversion option,允许bondholder转换一定数量的普通股;如允许交换别的公司股票,叫做 exchange option

回购协议,repo,卖证券的公司承诺在特定时间特定价格买回证券。相当于投资者借钱给公司。比margin loan利率低限制少

债券风险:
1.利率风险
2.call risk
3.prepayment risk
4.yield curve risk
5.reinvestment risk
6.credit risk-default risk, credit spread risk, downgrade risk
7. liquidity risk
8.exchange-rate risk
9.volatility risk
10.inflation risk
11.event risk

Duration:是yield改变1%,price改变的百分比
duration=%change in price/yield change in %

国际债券的种类:
1.foreign bonds,别国在本国发行的bonds
2.eurobonds,别国发行多国交易
3.global bonds,
4.sovereign debt,政府发行

美国政府发行的债券:
1.treasury security:可以认为risk free
2.treasury bill,小于一年,没有利息支付,折价发行,
3.treasury notes和treasury bonds,半年付息,notes一般2,3,5和10年。bonds一般20和30年

treasury inflation protected securities(TIPS),每半年根据CPI调整par value
coupon payment=inflation adjusted par value X ( stated coupon/2)

treasury strips,用notes和bonds来组合成zero coupon。分为coupon strips和principal strips

Mortgage passthrough securities,把大量mortgage打包整合,卖股份(participation certificates)
CMOs, collateralized mortgage obligations, 由MPS组成,用不同的tranches(slices)来claim不同的cash flow

municipal bonds(munis),通常免税。两种:tax-backed debt, revenue bonds

Corporate bonds
secured bonds有优先claim权,针对特定的assets
unsecured bonds叫debenture,有优先claim权的叫senior bonds,junior bonds或者subodinated bonds次级优先。都在优先股和普通股之前claim

Asset backed securities(ABS) , 金融资产抵押的债券,降低借贷成本,special purpose vehicle可以有高的credit rating,即使金融资产个别有问题,也不会影响ABS的评级。credit可以通过LC,bond insurance加强,进一步降低借贷成本.

其他工具:
Negotiable CDs,二级市场交易的,backed by bank assets。Eurodollor CDs是美元计价在美国外发行的。
bankers acceptances,用于保证支付和货物送达,折现交易,短期,limited liquidity
CDOs,Collateralized debt obligations,一堆debt的组合,可以包括公司债,bank loans,emerging market debts,MBS,或其他CDOs

一级市场发行bonds包括承销和best-efforts public offerings,还有private placements
二级市场有交易所交易,OTC交易(dealer market)

央行货币工具:
1.discount rate
2.open market operations(最常用)
3.band reserve requirements
4.persuading banks to tighten or loosen their credit policies

Pure expectation theory, yield curve 只反映未来的短期利率的期望。
短期利率预期上升->upward sloping curve
预期下降->downward sloping curve
预期上升然后下降->humped yield curve
保持不变->flat yield curve

Liquidity preference theory, yield curve是upward sloping,反映时限越长,premium要求越高
Market segmentation theory,借贷双方对期限有各自偏好,yield curve的形状跟每一个期限段内的需求供给相关

Yield spread
名义Yield spread是2个bond的market yield的差,由credit quality, call features, tax treatment, maturity 影响
absolute yield spread绝对差
relative yield spread相对差
yield ratio

Bond valuation process
1.估计现金流
2.设定discount rate,基于现金流的风险
3.计算现金流的现值
4.timing of principal repayments is not known with certainty
5.coupon payments are not known with certainty
6.the bond is convertiable or exchangeable into another security

Bond price 可以表示成par value的百分比,或者yield。
YTM是半年付的未来现金流折现到目前价格的单一折现率。半年息X2=年息,也叫bond equivalent yield

zero coupon bond price = face value/(1+YTM/2) ^2N, 反过来可以算YTM

spot rate & no arbitrage value, 可用于套利

bond 收入的3种来源,coupon payments,本金回收资本利得,reinvestment income

bond selling at par, coupon rate= current yield=yield to maturity
at premium,coupon rate>current yield > yield to maturity
at discount, coupong rate < current yield < yield to maturity
算YTC用call price作为FV和合适的terminal period

bootstripping spot rate,知道头几年的spot rate算后一年的

forward rate

Option-Adjusted Spread OAS
Zero-Volatility Spread Z-spread
Z-spread – OAS = option cost in %

Duration & Convexity

衡量interest rate risk的两种方法:
1. full valuation/scenario analysis approach
1)start with a current market yield and price
2)estimate changes in yields
3)revalue bonds
4)compare new value to current value

2.duration/convexity approach, ?较简单
算effective duration= (V_-V+)/(2×V0×Δy), ed用于有option的bond,modified duration用于option free的bond, 两个都是用于利率变化很小的情况下。变化较大还需引入convexity effect
% change in price = duration effect+convexity effect= [duration×Δy + convexity ×?Δy^2]×100
price value of a basis point(PVBP)=duration × 0.0001× value

derivative investment

衍生品是衍生自其他资产的价值或资产回]
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J 发布

四月 18th, 2008 at 9:41 下午

Secret Sauce笔记 Corporate Finance Portfolio Management Markets and Equities

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Capital budgeting 用于确认和评估长于一年的项目的现金流。4步:
1.generating ideas
2.analyzing project proposals
3.creating the firm’s capital budget
4.monitoring decisions and conducting a post-audit

种类:
1.replacement projects to maintain the business
2.replacement projects to reduce costs
3.expansion projects to increase capacity
4.new product or market development
5.mandatory projects,比如安全和环境法规要求
6.other projects包括高风险开发,management pet projects等不容易衡量的项目

5个key principles
1.基于incremental cash flows做决策,sunk costs不考虑,外部性比如cannibalization of sales要考虑。
2.cash flow基于机会成本,要考虑因本项目放弃的其他项目
3.timing of cash flows很重要
4.cash flows基于after-tax basis
5.financing cost反映在required rate of return,不在incremental cash flows

项目可以独立,也可以互斥。project sequencing要求排序,第二个项目要考虑第一个项目的影响

无限资金的公司可以接受所有盈利项目。capital rationing时,必须选最有价值的项目
payback period,cover初始成本的年限,不考虑时间价值,不折现,不考虑payback以后的cash flow
discounted payback period,考虑现值cover初始成本,折现,不考虑payback后的cash flow
average accounting rate of return=average net income/average book value,基于accounting income, 而不是cash flows, 不考虑时间价值,不折现
profitability index=所有现金流的PV/intial cash outflow,PI>1,NPV=0, IRR>cost of capital
NPV=所有进出现金流折现,>0,接受,<0不接受,两个互斥,取NPV大的
IRR=NPV为0的时候的discount rate,要试算。IRR>cost of capital 接受,否则不接受。
对于独立项目,NPV>0,或者IRR>cost of capital 就接受。互斥项目,如果NPV和IRR结果冲突,选NPV大的。

inflation反映在WACC,未来现金流要上调,或者某些NPV>0的项目要被拒绝。
大公司,上市公司,教育程度高的公司,比较喜欢折现方式做决策,欧洲公司和小公司喜欢用不折现的payback

weighted average cost of capital ,WACC=wdkd(1-t)+wpskps+wcekce, 税后debt+优先股+普通股

cost of equity capital3种方法
1.CAPM,kce=Rf+beta(Rm-Rf)
2.Discounted cash flow, kce=D1/P0+g
3.bond yield+risk premium,kce=目前长债的market yield+risk premium

cost of preferred stock
kps=Dps/P

cost of debt
kd=market yield×(1-t)

business risk是ROA的不确定性,是决定optimal capital structure很重要的因素。包括sales risk(需求的波动)和operating risk(固定成本占总成本的比例)
degree of operating leverage(DOL) =%ΔEBIT/%ΔSales=(sales-variable costs)/(sales-variable costs-fixed costs), 如果fixed costs=0, DOL=1,用于记忆

financial risk
degree of financial leverage (DFL)=%ΔEPS/%ΔEBIT=EBIT/(EBIT-interest expense), 如果interest expense=0,DFL=1,用于记忆,另外优先股的dividends当作interest计算

DTL=DOL X DFL=%ΔEPS/%ΔSales,同样的成本结构和外债比例的情况下,sales越高,DTL越小

breakeven quantity of sales QBE=total fixed cost/(price-variable cost per unit) 刚好覆盖固定成本可可变成本的数量

creditor 风险较低,但潜在收益也较低,owner是creditor拿剩的,风险较高,但收益好时,获得较多。

dividends不改变shareholder’S wealth,cash dividend有regular dividend,special dividend和liquiditing dividend

stock dividend,stock split,reverse stock split, stock repurchase,不管tax,cash dividend和repurchase都不影响wealth

EPS after payback=(total earning – after tax cost of funds) / shares outstanding after buyback, (回购股票股息利润-借债的利息)/剩下的股份数

公司用retain earning 回购股票,回购价<book value时,book value会增加,反之book value会减少。
三种回购方式:
open market,make a tender offer for a fixed number of shares at a fixed price, 跟大股东直接谈判

分红时间点:declaration date,ex-dividend date,hold-of-record date,payment date。
影响分红政策:
signaling effect,分红的变化对将来收益的期望
taxation of dividends,税收影响
clientele effect,客户的边际税率对分红的态度
restrictions on dividend payment,法规限制
flotation costs on new issues,新equity的cost比retain earning大,更愿意用retain earning来投资,而不用新发行股票
shareholder preference,有些股东喜欢固定现金分红,有些不喜欢。

税收系统
double taxation system,公司收入收税,股东收入再收
split-rate system,分红比retain earning税率低的时候收一次税,到股东这里再收一次
imputation system,分红收一次税,股东从个税中减去已交的税。税率是个税的税率

双重税和分税的有效税率计算 effective tax rate=corporate tax rate + (1- corporate tax rate)(individual tax rate)

分红的正面,跟股东分享财富,负面,公司没有可投资的盈利项目
unexpected dividend increases可预示公司预期强烈
unexpected dividend decreases或omissions,通常是负面预示盈利不能持续,但也可以正面说明有盈利项目
美国投资者会去猜测公司分红背后的问题,亚洲投资者一般不会。

公司治理
董事会成员独立于管理层,经验丰富有能力,每年选举,可以自主聘请顾问不用通过管理层,要有专门committee制定高管薪酬,风险管理,法律事务,治理事务。
董事会要有一定数量的独立成员,跟管理层没关系,跟供应商和客户没关系。audit committee要完全由独立成员组成,要有财务专家,有权利批准和否决any non-audit engagement of the audior, 控制audit 预算。

anti-takeover defense对management有好处,但损害股东利益,减低股价

股东权力,proxy voting,远程投票,保密投票,cumulative voting, 批准公司结构变化,可以提建议到董事会。

90%的投资收益可以用投资组合解释,而不是投资时机和选股。

investment policy statement
objective:
return objective, capital preservation ,capital appreciation, current income,total return
risk tolerance, psychological make up, personal factors-age, family sitution, existing wealth, insurance coverage, current cash reserves, and income.

constaints:
liquidity needs
time horizon
tax concerns
legal and regulatory factors
unique needs and preferences

expected return = 所有的”机率X回报率”的和 ,weighted average;方差=所有(Ri-ER)^2 × Pi 的和
历史数据计算某个asset的expected return,用历史数据的算数平均。方差按平均数计算。
标准差

Covariance衡量两个变量的移动方向的一致性。
历史数据用这个公式:

expected数据用这个公式:

Portfolio Standard deviation:

efficient frontier表示指定的risk,return最高的,或者指定return利润最低的组合。

capital market theory的假设:
所有投资者都用Markowitz mean-variance framework来选股,只选efficient frontier上的portfolio
risk-free rate时,借入借出无限制。
投资者有一致的期望
one-period horizon
divisible asset
市场是无摩擦,没tax没交易费
no inflation
利率固定
均衡市场

market portfolio包括所有可能的risky asset。无风险Capital Market Line跟effecient frontier交点M,M左边是愿意借出钱,M右边借入钱.

total risk=系统风险 +非系统风险
CAPM:ER=Rf+beta(Rm-Rf) ,注意题目是给Rm还是risk premium

security market line,SML线上的点,underpriced,线下overpriced,线上是equilibrium value

CAPM假设的其他:
1.不同的借入借出利率,不能退出系统风险,但CAPM仍然有效,可以加入zero-beta portfolio
2.交易费,趋同期望,和different planning periods导致SML是一个band不是一根line
3.taxes导致对每个投资者不同的SML和CML

运作良好的市场有以下特点:
timely 和accurate information
liquidity和marketability
price continuity and depth
internal efficiency-交易费尽可能低
informational (external) efficiency-价格迅速反应信息

一级市场,
二级市场, 为一级市场提供流动性。bonds的二级市场几乎是OTC和dealer markets

call market:特定时间交易股票,bid/ask聚合,一个成交价
continuous markets:开市时随时交易,可以auction process或者dealer bid-ask quotes定价格
pure auction market,有交易系统,像NYSE
dealer market,全交给dealer交易,买卖库存股票,像Nasdaq

Order的种类
market order,立刻交易
limit order,最低买家和最高卖价
short sale order, 借股票卖,再买回
stop loss order

Short sales:
uptick rule,必须在上升市场卖空
必须把所有dividends给lender

Margin 交易
FED规定initial margin最低是50%, 帐户余额低于maintenance margin要补足。

Market Index
1.Price-weighted series:DJIA,所有价格加起来平均。2个bias,高价股权重大,好公司拆股反而低权重(downward bias)
2.value-weighted series:S&P500,Bias,市值高的股票权重高,
3.unweighted(equal weighted) ,个股的增长率几何平均。几何平均比算数平均有downward bias

Efficient Capital Market, 3种EMH,基于price/trading volume information, publicly available information和all information
weak form: 股价反映所有历史价格和成交量信息,所以技术分析无用。
semistrong from:股价反映所有公开信息,包括历史价格和成交量,所以技术分析和基本面分析无用。
strong form:股价反映所有信息包括公开和内幕消息,所有分析无用。

检验weak form的EMH
1.statistical tests for independent,包括correlation和runs tests
2.trading rule tests看mechanical trading rule(filter rules)能不能产生abnormal return

semistrong form的EMH
1.time-series tests不可能战胜历史长期回报
2.cross-setional tests,所有的回报率都在SML
3.event studies 事件之后的股价变动,比如拆股,IPO,汇率变动,会计变动,收入公告等。

market anomalies
earning surprises to predict returns
calendar studies
P/E ratio
size effect
neglected firm effect
book value/market value ratio

指数基金的好处:
broad diversification
low cost
outperform managed funds

反映信息有效价格的限制:
处理新信息有成本,和反应时间
价格不绝对有效,如果信息的收益比交易费少
套利也有风险,限制了套利带来的有效价格。

怀疑anomalies的理由
1.measure of abnormal return
2.strategy risk
3.data mining
4.survivorship bias
5.sample selection bias
6.small sample bias
7.nonsynchronous trading

Top-down估值方法
1.经济分析
2.产业分析
3.公司股票分析

优先股估价,perpetuity的方法,Pps=Dp/kp

Dividend Discount Models(DDM) ,未来期望现金流折现

one-year holding period:P0=(D1+P1) /(1+ke)
multiple-year holding period: 按每年D折现+最后Pn折现
infinite period model:P0=D1/(ke-gc) =D0(1+gc)/(Ke-gc), gc=ROE×(1-dividend payout rate)
temporary supernormal growth/multi-stage DDM:超常时期的每年 D折现,之后Pn=Dn+1/(ke-gc)

P0/E1=(D1/E1)/(k-g ), leading P/E ratio, P0/E0是trailing P/E ratio
dividend payout 增加,P/E增加;
g增加,P/E增加
k增加,P/E减小
ROE增加,g增加,P/E增加, ROE=net income/sales × sales/total assets × total asset/equity

P/E 分析的问题:
1.earning是历史数据,会differing quality
2.business cycle 会影响P/E, 现在的P/E跟未来预期会很不一样
3.k<g, 没法算

产业分析:预测人口趋势,技术,政府监管(关税配额),政策方向,消费趋势。

经济周期的5个阶段:
1.recovery :cyclicals 和 commodities
2.early expansion:stocks and real estate
3.late expansion:Bonds and interest-sensitive stocks
4.slowing,entering recession:bonds and interest-sensitive stocks
5.recession:commodities and stocks

N-firm concentration, N个最大的公司市场份额相加
Herfindahl index ,所有公司市场份额的平方和

产业life cycle phases
1.pioneering phase ,start-up phase, limited growth in sales, low 或者negative profit margin;demand is low,巨大的developmental cost
2.rapid acceleration growth phase,demand grow rapidly,limited competition,sales growth和profit margin growth are high and accelerating
3.mature growth phase, sales growth above normal, but cease to accelerate, 竞争对手进入,profit margin开始decline
4.stabilization and market maturity phase,最长的phase,sale growth接近平均经济growth,激烈的竞争,slim profit margin,ROE 变得normal
5.deceleration of growth and decline, demand shifs away,替代产品导致profit margin decline, growth decline 或者负增长。

波特五力
现有竞争对手
新进入
替代产品
buyer的bargain power
supplier的bargain power

国际产业分析的risk
competition in markets
competition among the value chain
Gov policies
market risk factors

EPS= [(salesX EBDIT margin%)-depreciation-interest] (1-tax rate)
P/E=(D/E) / (k-g)

技术分析,假设:
1. Value,price由需求供给决定
2.需求供给由理性和非理性行为驱使
3.证券价格移动趋势保持长期
4.需求供给的变化不能分析得出时, 可由价格变化观察得出。

技术分析和基本面分析的区别:
基本面分析说价格迅速反应新信息,技术分析说价格反映很慢
基本面分析价值变化,技术分析需求供给变化

技术分析的2个rule
1.contrarian view,多数人是错的,反向操作
2.follow the smart money view,跟风操作。

contrarian view的牛市指标
1.开放基金cash position, 开放基金cash /total fund assets
2.投资者的cash在brokerage account的balance
3.CBOE put/call ratio
4.future traders baerish on stock index futures
5.investment advisory opinions, bearish opinion/total opinions

OTC volume / NYSE volume 增加,是熊市信号。

Smartmoney view根据以下指标:
1.confidence index = barron’s average yield on 10 top-grade bonds/ Dow Jones average 40 bonds, 越高,越接近1,是bullish
2.T-bill to Eurodollar yield spread, 越小,越bullish
3.short sales by specialist 越高,越bearish
4.margin debt balance in brokerage accounts,越高越bullish

P/E的好处,earning是决定因素,比较流行,研究表明低P/E的股票长期获得较高的回报。
缺点:负earning没法用,portion of earnings transitory/volatile, 容易被会计操纵。

P/BV的好处,通常是正的,比P/E稳定,对银行和金融机构是很好的衡量标准,对going out of business的公司是很好的衡量标准,研究表明低P/BV的股票长期获得较高回报。
缺点:BV不包括非实物资产,不好对比,会计方法导致不同的BV,种种原因可以跟市场价相差太多

P/S的好处,一直是正数,sales比较难操纵,比P/E波动小,对startups成熟公司和周期性产业都能用, 研究表明低P/S的股票长期获得较高回报。
缺点:高的sales growth rate不代表高profit growth,不能反映不同的成本结构,revenue实现方法可能distort sales

算CF的方法:
1. earning + noncash charges= net income + depreciation+ amortization
2.adjusted CFO=CFO + net cash interest (1-t)

J 发布

四月 16th, 2008 at 10:09 上午

Secret Sauce笔记 Financial Statement Analysis

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FS被investor和creditor有用,还有gov regulator,tax authority和其他,提供short-term liquidity, long-term earning power, growth opportunity和asset position of the firm. 还应该是relevent,timely,reliable,material和consistent允许time-series和cross-sectional 比较。

The Financial Account Standards Board(FASB)是美国的,建立了Generally Accepted Accounting Principle(GAAP)
The International Organization of  Securiies Commission(IOSC)建立跨过的disclosure标准
The International Accounting Standards Board(IASB)目标是提供international uniformity, 虽然没有执行力,但很多国家还是采用IASB GAAP

除了Balance sheet,income statement和statement of cash flow,分析师还应该看financial statement footnotes,statement of comprehensive income,statement of stockholders’ equity,proxy statement,supplementary schedules和management dicision and analysis(MD&A).

独立auditor有doubts,就说qualified opinion; auditor能提供 reasonable assurance证明报表没有material misstatement,就说unqualified

revenue和expense在earn和incur时候就实现了,不管cash flow是什么时候。matching principle要求expense在revenue实现的同时记录。

实现revenue的条件,completion of the earning process和assuance of payment
实现revenue的方法,sale basis method,percentage-of-completion method,completed contract method, installment sales method,cost recovery method

unusual or infrequent items: 是pre-tax 在net income from continuing operations之前。线上
gains of losses from 关掉business segment
gains of losses from 下属公司卖assets or investments
provisions for environmental remediation
impairments, write-offs, write-downs 和restructuring costs
integration expense 跟收购有关

Extrodinary items: 是net of taxes 在net income from continuing operation 之后。线下
losses from expropriation of assets
uninsured losses from natural disasters

discontinued operation:是管理层决定dispose of但还没做或当年没做,在operation已经有income或者loss之后。必须在实质上与公司别的活动不一样。是net of tax,在线下

accounting change,累积效应,是after tax basis在线下,通常不需要restate 历史,除非:
1. 库存会计方法改变
2.改变(to/from)full-cost method, 比如油气开采
3.改变(to/from)percentage-of-completion method
4.IPO前的任何改变

操纵earnings和managerial discretion,4种操纵方法:
1.classification of good/bad news, 好消息放在线上,坏消息放在线下
2.income smoothing,好年份做小,坏年份做大
3.big bath behavior,所有坏消息统一公布
4.accounting change,用来smooth earnings

CFO,CFI,CFF里面容易混的几个,interest payment,receipts和dividends,USGAAP下,公司给股东的dividends是CFF,其他的dividends和interest expense都是CFO,在IAS GAAP下,花掉的dividends和interests可以是CFO也可以是CFF,收入的dividends和interests可以是CFO也可以是CFI

direct和indirect method 算CFO

indirect,bottom up,从下至上,net income开始,net income – gains +losses from financing和investing +non-cash charges+-asset和liability因为operation的改变
direct,top down,从上到下,sales开始,sales- cogs- cash operating expense – interest expense -taxes

cash flow的分类,不是影响income statement就是影响balance sheet;asset减小,liability和equity增加是正现金流。asset增加和liability和equity减小,是负现金流。

CFI,买property,plant和equipment,investments,acquisition和卖asset和business产生的cash
CFF,capital structure 改变的交易。dividends paid,short-term borrowing的改变,long-term borrowing 和payment of long-term borrowing,stock sales and repurchases

Free cash flow FCF=CFO-net capital expenditure

5个影响跨国报表的因素
legal system,tax laws,sources of financing ,inflation rates,political and economic ties

公式:
current ratio=current assets/current liability
quick ratio=(cash + marketable securies+receivables)/current liabilities
cash ratio=

cash conversion cycle=avg.receivable colletion period+avg.inventory processing period-payable payment period
receivable turnover=net annual sales/avg.receivables; avg.receivables collection period=365/receivable turnover
payable turnover=COGS / avg.trade payables;payable payment period=365/payables turnover ratio
inventory turnover=COGS/avg.inventory; avg inventory processing period=365/inventory turnover

Total asset turnover=net sales / avg total net assets
fixed asset turnover=net sales / avg net fixed assets
equity turnover =net sales / avg equity

在common-size income statement能找到
gross profit margin=gross profit / net sales
net profit margin=net income /net sales
operating profit margin=operating profit /net sales=EBIT/net sales

ROTC return on total capital=(net income+interest expense)/average total capital
return on total equity=net income / avg. total equity
return on common equity=(net income – preferred dividends)/avg. common equity

ROE
three components,traditional approach
=net income/sales × sales/assets× assets/equity=net profit margin×asset turnover×equity multiplier
假如ROE低,可能是poor profit margin或者poor asset turnover,或者under-leverage
five components,extended system
=(EBIT/sales×sales/assets-interest expense/assets)×asset/equity×(1-t)
=(operating profit margin×total asset turnover -interest expense rate)×financial leverage multiplier×tax retention rate
industry averages,economy-wide firm averages和公司自己的历史performance

D/E ratio=total long-term debt/total equity
total debt ratio=(current liability+total long-term liability)/(total debt +total equity)
interest coverage=EBIT/interest expense
cash flow to long-term debt = CFO/(book value of long term debt+PV of operating leases)
fixed financial coverage ratio(要把lease interest expense加到分子分母)

ratio的局限:独立看没用,不同的accounting 方法导致横向对比困难,跨行业的公司对比困难

retention rate=1-dividends declared/operating income after taxes
g=retention rate X ROE

common-size balance sheet是所有的BS项目以percentage of total assets表示
common-size income statement是所有IS的项目以percentage of sales表示

dilutive securities:stock option,warrants,convertable debt 和 preferred stock,行权时会减小EPS
antidilutive:行权时会增加EPS

simple capital structure,没有dilutive securities的结构,只有common stock, nonconvertible debt和non convertible preferred stock
complex capital structure,有dilutive的结构,要求report bisic EPS和diluted EPS

bisic EPS=(net income – preferred dividends)/weighted average number of common shares outstanding
diluted EPS
每个dilutive securities要分别判断是不是会dilute
convertible preferred dividends/shares from conversion of preferred stocks或者
convertible debt interest(1-t)/shares from conversion os debt 假如值小于basic EPS, 那么就是dilutive,因为转换后收益高
diluted EPS=调整后给common stocks的income/(weighted avg common stock+转换的股份)
调整后的income=earning for common shares+可转换优先股的dividends +可转债的after tax interest

Treasury stock method,只要行权价低于均价,就会增加shares
new shares =(avg market price – exercise price)/avg market price X shares covered by options/warrants

inventory valuation method
FIFO,早买的早进COGS
LIFO,晚买的早进COGS
weighted average costing

涨价时,LIFO的inventory会低估,用LIFO reserve来调整LIFO到FIFO,代表没实现的profit 和没paid的tax。调整BS要把LIFO reserve加到inventory,把t X LIFO reserve加到deferred taxes,把(1-t)×LIFO reserve加到retained earnings

COGSF=COGSL-(ending LIFO reserve-beginning LIFO reserve)

Profitability ratio 用LIFO衡量,asset和equity用FIFO衡量;COGS用LIFO更好,FIFO要调整成LIFO
Liquidity ratio 用FIFO更好,inventory用FIFO更好, LIFO要调整成FIFO
Activity ratio,inventory turnover最好是用LIFO的COGS和FIFO的avg inventory
Sovency ratio,调整BS和Shareholders’ equity要用FIFO,LIFO要调整。

长期资产,实物资产可以depreciation,natural resources可以depletion,intangible asset可以amortize

折旧:
直线折旧=(原值-残值)/折旧年限
SYD折旧(x)= (原值-残值)(n-x+1)/(1+….n)
双重折旧(x)=2/折旧年限 X book value at beginning of year x (不管残值)

impairments, carrying value大于未来现金流(不折现)就必须impairment
impairment的loss = carrying value-fair value,假如fair value不能算,用未来现金流折现于incremental borrowing rate

SFAS 143要求asset retirement obligation(AROs),要求AROs的现值,加到fixed assets和liabilities中,liability像zero coupon一样增加,asset就折旧,interest expense会增加,liabilities to equity 会增加

tax return的术语
Taxable income
Taxes payable
Income tax paid
Tax loss carryforward

FS上,
pretax income
income tax expense
deferred income tax expense

DTL , BS上income tax expense比taxes payable多的部分
最常见的是,income statement上的折旧比tax return的折旧少。
DTA,BS上taxes payable 比income tax expense多的部分
比如warranty expense,income statement上warranty expense可以deductible,tax return上只有发生了的warranty expense才可以deductible

DTL和DTA计算,taxable income 和pretax income所有临时的差别 X 未来的tax rate,not netted,同时反映在BS上,税率的改变同时影响,net change反映在当期income tax expense
如果asset不断增加,导致DTL不会reverse,分析师会把liability变成equity;如果有可能reverse,要用现值来调整。

免税债券的interest不增加DTL或DTA,要调整到taxes payable=income tax expense

par value 发行的bonds
BS上,bond全程记做face value
interest expense=book value X market rate=par value X coupon rate
cash flow,interest payment=coupon payment,CFF=发行价,总结时CFF=redeem价=发行价

溢价或折价发行
BS上,总是premium逐年amortized直到最后0, discount同样;最后回复par value
interest expense=coupon payment – premium amortization; coupon payment + discount amortization
cash flow, primuim CFO 低估,CFF高估

capital lease 分类
1.租期结束title transfer
2.a bargin purchase option exists
3.租期>=75%的设备寿命
4.payment的现值>=90%的fair value of the asset, 折现率是lower the lessee’s incremental borrowing rate or implicit interest rate on the lease, implicit rate是lease payment的现值=fair value

operating lease:Lessee,开始时没有entry,rent expense = lease payment 对income和CFO影响。footnotes公布未来5年的lease payment需求
capital lease:开始时asset和liability增加最小lease payment的现值,折现率是lower the lessee’s incremental borrowing rate or implicit interest rate on the lease, implicit rate是lease payment的现值=fair value
分成两部分,CFO减少interest expense=discount rate X leaseliability at the beginning of the period,CFF减少principal payment= lease payment-interest payment


Off balance sheet financing methods
take-or-pay contracts and throughput arrangements: 承诺买一定量在一定时间,价格固定,买方要在footnotes里面披露。分析师要把这个信息加入FS

sale of receivables with recouse
把receivable卖掉的公司,要把收来的receivable给new owner,记为sales减少receivable增加CFO,买家风险小,卖家承担receivable的风险,就像一个抵押贷款
分析师要加回account receivable和current liabilities,卖掉的CFO要改成CFF

Lessor对于lease的处理
operating lease,lease payment是revenue,asset要折旧。
capital lease,
1.如果sales lease,lessor是制造商或者dealer,开始时就算profit;增加net income,retained earnings和assets
2.如果是financing lease,只有利息收入算作每期的income

租期当中,operating lease的net income 会higher,所以两种方式的asset equity和retained earning是一样的。

J 发布

四月 14th, 2008 at 10:08 下午

Secret Sauce笔记 Economics

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要了解shift in demand/supply curve 和movement along the curve的区别
价格改变,Q会改变,move along the curve
消费者偏好改变,整个demand curve 会shift

Elasticity

Price elasticity of demand 价格变化导致需求量变化
Elastic demand 小价格变动导致大需求量变
Inelastic demand 大价格变动导致小需求量变
Perfectly elastic demand 价格小增加导致需求量变为0
Perfectly inelastic demand 价格变化不改变需求量

Price 和 total revenue的关系
elastic demand时,价格下降导致revenue上升,inelastic时,价格和revenue同向改变

2个因素决定 elasticity
substitute替代品
share of budget spent on product 比例大弹性就大。summery-of-impacts-on-money-and-policy

Income elasticity of demand income变化导致需求量变化
inferior good 有负的income elasticity,因为income越多,inferior good需求越小,比如bus travel和margarine
normal good 有正的income elasticity,比如面包,香烟
luxury good是income elasticity 大于1 的normal good

Cross elasticity of demand
一种商品价格改变导致另一种商品量的变化。正的是替代品,负的是补充品

Elasticity of supply 价格改变导致供应量的改变
2个因素,
资源的替代品,如果资源稀缺,elasticity会很小
价格改变后经过的时间,momentary supply / short-term supply / long-term supply

Eficiency and equity

marginal benifit 多用一个得到的好处
marginal cost 多造一个的花费
total value最大化是MB=MC,此时是efficient quantity of output

consumer surplus 消费者愿意pay的和需要pay的差
producer surplus 生产者得到的价格和minimum supply price(opportunity cost) 的差

Marginal social cost 所有消费者从一个产品或服务得到的marginal benefit ;marginal social benefit curve 是market demand curve
Marginal social cost是所有生产者从一个产品或服务得到的marginal cost;是supply curve
两条curve相交点,是equilibrium price 和 quantity,此时comsumer surplus和producer surplus是最大化

实现最大化的阻碍
1.price control
2.tax subsidies,and production quotas
3.monopoly
4.external cost
5.external benefit
6.public good and common resources

Fairness 的idea
1.utilitarism 所有人拥有相等的资源就是价值最大化,理论是错的,因为从rich 到poor的过程减小生产总量;fair/equal economic outcome
2.symmetry principle 社会基于私人财产和自愿交换,每人得到的价值与他对社会的贡献相等; fair/equal economic opportunity

Market in action
price floor
price ceiling
effect of minimum wage/price floor
tax on buyers and sellers, 无论对谁征税,最后都受影响,只是看谁的elasticity大;elastic大的影响小。
subsidy and quota
illigal goods

explicit costs,可计算的显性成本
implicit costs,机会成本
accounting profit 只包括显性成本
economic profit包括显性和隐性成本

利益最大化的限制
技术,信息,市场

technological efficiency  最小的input
economic efficiency 最小可能的cost,必须是technological efficiency 才可能是economic efficiency

Command system, 由managerial chain of command组织生产
incentive system,由创造reward和motivation的系统来最大化利润
通常两者结合使用,

principal-agent problem,owner要最大化公司的利润,manager最大化income而不是公司的利润,有矛盾。
解决办法:给经理ownership,给incentive pay,长期合同

公司类型
1.proprietorship,一个owner,无限责任,firm income是owner的income
优点:容易建立,决策简单,taxed once
缺点:没有consensus来检查决策,owner的财产有risk,owner死了,firm也死了,获得投资难,也很贵。
2.partnership,2个或以上owner,无限责任,按比例分配利润
优点:容易建立,多头决策,死一个partner公司不倒,taxed once
缺点:consensus比较难,partner的财产有risk,如果一个partner离开或者死掉,capital会shortfall
3.Corporation,stockholder来own,有限责任,双重tax
优点:有限责任,融资便宜,管理职责可以请专业人士,不限于owner,无限寿命,可以签长期工作合同
缺点:管理结构复杂,双重tax

economic market的种类
perfect competition:很多公司做一样的产品,没有进入门槛,是perfect elastic demand
monopolistic competition:很多公司做微小差别的产品,downward sloping demand curve
oligopoly: 少数几家做一样的或者微小差别的产品,公司间interdependent,巨大的进入门槛,有巨大的规模经济
monopoly:独家,产品没有替代品,高进入门槛

Concentration 的衡量
four-firm:头四家公司的占有率的和,低于40%说明是竞争市场,高于60%说明是oligopoly
herfindahl-hirschman index: 50家最大的公司的占有率的平方和,数字很小说明高竞争度,10000表示monopoly,高于1800说明竞争不激烈
2个方法的局限:没考虑地域,进入门槛和公司合并,还有市场和产业的关系

market coordination, outsourcing
firm coordination, 公司通常可以lower transaction costs,实现economies of scale, scope 和 team production

Cost的种类
fixed cost也叫sunk cost,short run不变,所以做短期决策不考虑。跟时间有关,跟生产level无关
average fixed costs,fixed cost/ouput,output增加,afc减少; 图上是downward slope一直减小
variable cost,工资,原材料。跟时间无关,跟生产level有关
average variable cost: u-shape,先减小再增加
average total cost:所以ATC也先减小再增加
marginal cost:MC也是u-shape,MC交ATC于最低点处。

最大化利润,MR=MC,适用于4种市场。
pure competitive(price taker)market :很多独立的公司造一样的产品,没有进入门槛。perfectly elasic demand(水平线),假如提高价格,就卖不出产品。
price searcher:downward sloping demand curve,找最大化利润的点。
monopoly公司通常价格高,量少。还可以价格歧视
歧视的条件:
1.要downward sloping demand curve
2.不同的需求曲线的客户
3.要能防止resell

monopolisic competition的公司广告费很高,品牌很重要,

进入门槛:规模经济,政府法规限制,专利,资源垄断

oligopoly model
kinked demand curve model, 假设其他方不会追随涨价,但会追随降价
dominant firm oligopoly model,假设一家独大,其他是price taker
囚徒困境,结果是都不妥协。

宏观经济学
marginal revenue,多卖一个得到的revenue
marginal revenue product, 卖掉多投入一个input得到的product的revenue

增加price,增加labor demand,labor替代品降价,减少labor demand
labor demand在长期比短期more elastic

physical capital:实物资产,工厂土地库存设备,需求越高,financial capital需求就越高
公司会买physical capital直到marginal revenue product=cost of financial capital
利率增加,financial capital需求减小。利率由saving决定,saving由future income决定。

renewable resource: perfectly inelastic supply(垂直),价格由demand决定
non-renewable resource,perfectly elastic supply(水平), supply由demand决定,现价是将来价格的折现。

机会成本是跳槽后能earn的,经济租是现在earn-跳槽后earn

business cycle:2个phases contraction 和expansion;2个turning point trough 和 peak
决定因素:real GDP,real income;employment;industrial production;wholesale-retail sales

labor market
rate of employment: 失业人数/劳动力人数
labor force participation rate 劳动力人数/16岁以上人数
employment to population ratio: working age人数 /总人数
aggregate hours:所有雇员全年的总工作时间
real wage rate:money wage 根据price level调节后的

unemployment的种类
1.frictional unemployment 摩擦性失业,跟信息流通不畅有关
2.structual unemployment 结构性失业,跟产业变动,和工人技能有关
3.cyclical unemployment 周期性失业,生产率变动有关,产能没充分利用

inflation 和CPI

aggregate supply 和aggregate demand
SAS,supply 短期对价格的反映
LAS=potential GDP = full employment时的real output
labor数量增加,capital数量增加,技术提高,LAS就增加

AD反映价格和需求量的关系:4个组成:消费,投资,政府采购,净出口
影响因素:对income inflation和profit的期望,财政货币政策,世界经济增长率

长期短期均衡
AD跟LAS的相交点的价格,是long-run equilibrium
短期均衡
output不在full employment GDP上,在下方是recession,上方是inflation

三种学院派思想
1.classical:AD和AS因技术而改变,money wage的调整迅速,tax是回归full employment主要障碍
2.keynesian:AD因预期而改变,会缓慢的从recession到full-employment;建议直接通过货币政策增加AD
3.Monetarist:不可预期的货币政策是偏离full employment的主要因素;建议持续的可预测的货币供应,低边际税率保持价格稳定,最大化real GDP growth

money的作用:medium of exchange;unit of account;store of value
depository institution的作用:create liquidity;financial intermediaries; pool default risk

FED的准备金率,货币乘数=1/准备金率
FED的工具:利率discount ra

J 发布

四月 10th, 2008 at 4:05 下午

Secret Sauce笔记 Ethic&GIPS

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Codes & Standards的要求:

  1. 了解法规
    遵守最严格的法律
    不要索取礼品,不影响客观性和独立性
    用reasonable care,不欺骗,不说谎
    不跟违规的同伙
    不剽窃
    不保证投资回报,不保证过去的业绩重现
    工作之外不做任何有损个人integrity的事情
  2. 不做内幕交易,不操控市场价格和交易量以误导别的投资者
  3. 为客户服务,尽职尽责;公平对待每个客户,不拿ipo的股份
    了解客户的需求,做适合客户需求的建议,保守客户秘密,不做数据欺诈,为客户利益vote non-trivial proxies
  4. 为雇主服务,不背叛雇主;获得外部补偿须经雇主书面同意;公开从客户得到的礼品
    辞职后不带走资料(脑子里的除外)
    管理者要防止违规发生
  5. 做投资分析,要有reasonable basis,做记录,告诉客户投资流程,区别facts和opinion
  6. 公开潜在的利益冲突(让第三方判断是否冲突)
    公开推荐费,客户交易在公司交易之前,对待亲友跟别的客户一致。
  7. 考试不作弊
    不用任何有利身份考试作弊;不滥用CFA标志,不能做名词;在名头里面不能加粗放大;不暗示任何优势;不滥用candidacy,除非已经注册了考试;没有CFA level 1,2,3的名头。

能做的事:可以用公开信息无需标注;在reasonable basis上可以错;可以用mosaic theory整合一些内幕信息和非内幕信息成为自己的投资推荐;不是有意误导投资者的前提下可以大量交易;可以说treasury securities没有违约风险;可以向上级,compliance officer 和outside counsel求助; 超过7年的记录可以扔掉;公开的情况下,可以接受礼品和推荐费;公平发布信息后,可以先跟大客户沟通;业外可以喝醉酒但不能违法;可以说passed level 1,2,3; 可以精确描述考试复习的过程和使用CFA标志。

Ethics很重要,不能fail,否则不能通过考试,别的科目fail也可以通过考试。注意考题细节tricky small details.

GIPS用于为投资公司提供uniform framework的历史业绩来服务客户和潜在客户。遵从GIPS是自愿的,但部分符合不能算遵从。必须整个公司,完全符合。

用于promote fair competition, consistent ,compareble and accurate performance presentation information

需提供至少5年 或从公司建立至今(小于5年)的数据。必须包括所有分支机构,所有帐户,不能有bias,composites需包括同类投资策略或目标或mandate。5年数据之后,要累计至少10年。

verification也是自愿的,不是必须的。要包含认证期限。

8个sections
0.fundamantals of complaince
1.input data
2.calculation methodology
3.composite construction
4.disclosures
5.presentation and reporting
6.real estate
7.private equity

唯一允许的说法:XXX has prepared and presented this report in compliance with the Global Investment Performence Standards(GIPS).

    J 发布

    四月 7th, 2008 at 4:16 下午

    发表在 Secret Sauce - L1

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