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CFA L2 笔记 Economics

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Rule of 70, approximate years to double = 70/growth rate

Factors of production:
Land, Capital Goods,  Labor, Entrepreneurial ability

Preconditions of economic growth:
Markets, Property rights, Monetory exchange 

Labor productivity growth / Real GDP per labor hour有2个因素决定,

1.growth in physical capital per labor hour, 导致move along productivity curve,technology level一定的情况下,有One-Third Rule,1%改变1/3%的real GDP per labor hour,剩下的是technological change导致的改变。
2.technological change  ,导致productivity curve to shift 

有law of diminishing returns

Key method to increase eco growth:
encouraging savings
encouraging R&D to develop tech advances that are public goods
stimulate international trade to realize gains from specification
improve the quality of education by investing in human capital 

Key factors driving eco growth:
Saving and investment in new capital
Investment in human capital 
Discovery new tech

3个Growth Theories

1.Classical growth theory,说real GDP是temporary (real GDP/person up above subsisitence level)-> population explodes -> Real GDP/person down to subsistence level.

classical-growth

2.Neoclassical growth theory, 说no tech change -> no real GDP growth, Tech Change -> increased saving and investment -> capital per labor hour grow and real return fall.
when real return = target return, economic growth stops.
Tech drives eco growth, but not influenced by eco growth.
population growth independent  of economic growth.(difference between 1&2) 

neoclassical-growth

3.New growth theory,说Eco growth continues indefinitely as tech advances. Real rate down -> incentive to discover new products and methods -> real return grow and > target return.
Eco growth does influence tech development(difference between 2&3) 
low profits is incentive to innovate(key difference btw 2&3)
knowledge capital 不管low of diminishing returns.
也叫perpetual motion economy,  endogenous growth model

new-growth

Economic Regulation: 包括控制natural monopolies 和competitive industries, 为了控制price,有2种,Cost-of-service & Rate-of-return, 控制excessive monopoly profit 和 predatory competitive practices

Social Regulation: 包括控制across all industries

nagative effects: creative response (feedback effect)

Regulator Behavior:
Capture Hypothesis, 说regulator会收industry影响。
Share-the-gains, Share-the-pains theory, 说 regulator会考虑三方的利益,legislators,custormers,regulated firm

Barriers to trade:
Tariff, benefit domestic producers, worker in protected industries and gov. at the expense of domestic consumers and workers outside the protected industry.
Quotas, benefit domestic producers, worker in protected industries, and those with import licenses , at the expense of domestic consumers and worker outside the protected industry.
Voluntary export restrains(VERs), benefit domestic producers, workers in protected industries, and those with export licenses or the power to grant them, at the expense of domestic consumers and workers outside the protected industry.
supports:
1. protect developing industries
2.anti-dumping
3.national defense

little supports:
1. protect jobs.
2.create jobs.
3.depress high wage

Real FX = Nomi Fx × Price in Foreign / Price in Domestic

Currency Demand:
1.demand for export from the country(or area) 
2.interest rate of the currency
3.expected future exchange rate

Currency Supply:
1.demand for import
2.interest rate  of other currencies
3.expected future exchange rate

Same factors impact on supply&demand, so exchange rate may be quite volatile(more so if supply&demand independent.)  

Balance of payment equation(BOP)

current account + capital account + official settlement account = 0
current account: net exchange of goods and services, investment income, unilateral transfers(gifts to or from other nations)
capital account(financial): flow of funds, to make up the difference for current account.
official settlement account: changes in official reserves(foreign currency, gold, IMF special drawing rights(SDRs), other foreign assets)

Flexible ex rate,决定于supply&demand without direct intervention by central bank

Fixed rate, peg the value of a currency, set by gov, need active gov intervention,需要一定的level的 reserves

Crawling Peg ex rate, set a target range for a limited period of time, reduce the risk to run out of reserves

Direct Quotes: DC/FC(base currency/counter currency),  Indirect, FC/DC
AUD:USD=0.6 –> USD/AUD= 0.6 –> 0.6-USD/AUD用于计算cross rate 
 

fx market: spot market , forward market, currency swap market 

bid-ask spread = (ask-bid)/bid , depend on market conditions, bank and currency dealer positions,  trading volume

Triangular Arbitrage

base currency forward discount=forward rate – spot rate = negative number
base currency forward premium=forward rate – spot rate = positive number 

Annualized forward premium/discount =(Fr-Sr)/Sr×(360/number of forward contract days)

 

Interest rate parity, coverd interest arbitrage
forward=spot × (1+rf(n/360)) /(1+rd(n/360))

currency

 

Unanticipated shift to expansionary monetary policy -> economic growth, accelerated inflation rate, lower real interest rate

Unanticipated shift to expansive fiscal policy -> budget deficits, increase in aggregate demand, accelerated inflation rate, increase in domestic real interest rates

Purchasing power parity(PPP)
relative PPP: E(St)=S0 × [(1+ If)/(1+Id)]^t

International Fisher Relation: interest rate diff. should be equal to expected inflation diff. real interest rates are stable.
exact methodology: (1+r ) =(1+real r)(1+E(I))
linear approximation: r≈real r + E(I) / real r≈ r- E(I)

Uncovered interest rate parity combined PPP 和Fish relation
forward=spot × (1+rf(n/360)) /(1+rd(n/360)) = E[Sn] 
(F-S0)/S0 =E(%ΔS)

GDP+net property income from abroad=GNI-depreciation=NNI

GDP常用,但有问题,1. survey得来的数据耗时且不准,2.低估了灰色和地下经济

GDP三部分:perfect world,output=expenditure=income
output:net value added=total production – total cost  (most reliable)
expenditure:Total final expenditure(TFE)=all consumption+investment+export goods and services
income:all earnings ,trading profits ,rental income (least reliable)

Expenditure 是market price(含tax和subsidy),Output和Income是factor price
GDP at market price – indirect taxes + subsidies = GDP at factor price 

Output是current 和 constant prices
Expenditure是current price, adjusted to constant price,算price index,叫GDP deflator (volatile eco时不准)
Income用current price,用price index转换成constant price

J 发布

一月 31st, 2009 at 6:09 上午

发表在 CFA 学习笔记 - L2

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Secret Sauce笔记 Economics

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要了解shift in demand/supply curve 和movement along the curve的区别
价格改变,Q会改变,move along the curve
消费者偏好改变,整个demand curve 会shift

Elasticity

Price elasticity of demand 价格变化导致需求量变化
Elastic demand 小价格变动导致大需求量变
Inelastic demand 大价格变动导致小需求量变
Perfectly elastic demand 价格小增加导致需求量变为0
Perfectly inelastic demand 价格变化不改变需求量

Price 和 total revenue的关系
elastic demand时,价格下降导致revenue上升,inelastic时,价格和revenue同向改变

2个因素决定 elasticity
substitute替代品
share of budget spent on product 比例大弹性就大。summery-of-impacts-on-money-and-policy

Income elasticity of demand income变化导致需求量变化
inferior good 有负的income elasticity,因为income越多,inferior good需求越小,比如bus travel和margarine
normal good 有正的income elasticity,比如面包,香烟
luxury good是income elasticity 大于1 的normal good

Cross elasticity of demand
一种商品价格改变导致另一种商品量的变化。正的是替代品,负的是补充品

Elasticity of supply 价格改变导致供应量的改变
2个因素,
资源的替代品,如果资源稀缺,elasticity会很小
价格改变后经过的时间,momentary supply / short-term supply / long-term supply

Eficiency and equity

marginal benifit 多用一个得到的好处
marginal cost 多造一个的花费
total value最大化是MB=MC,此时是efficient quantity of output

consumer surplus 消费者愿意pay的和需要pay的差
producer surplus 生产者得到的价格和minimum supply price(opportunity cost) 的差

Marginal social cost 所有消费者从一个产品或服务得到的marginal benefit ;marginal social benefit curve 是market demand curve
Marginal social cost是所有生产者从一个产品或服务得到的marginal cost;是supply curve
两条curve相交点,是equilibrium price 和 quantity,此时comsumer surplus和producer surplus是最大化

实现最大化的阻碍
1.price control
2.tax subsidies,and production quotas
3.monopoly
4.external cost
5.external benefit
6.public good and common resources

Fairness 的idea
1.utilitarism 所有人拥有相等的资源就是价值最大化,理论是错的,因为从rich 到poor的过程减小生产总量;fair/equal economic outcome
2.symmetry principle 社会基于私人财产和自愿交换,每人得到的价值与他对社会的贡献相等; fair/equal economic opportunity

Market in action
price floor
price ceiling
effect of minimum wage/price floor
tax on buyers and sellers, 无论对谁征税,最后都受影响,只是看谁的elasticity大;elastic大的影响小。
subsidy and quota
illigal goods

explicit costs,可计算的显性成本
implicit costs,机会成本
accounting profit 只包括显性成本
economic profit包括显性和隐性成本

利益最大化的限制
技术,信息,市场

technological efficiency  最小的input
economic efficiency 最小可能的cost,必须是technological efficiency 才可能是economic efficiency

Command system, 由managerial chain of command组织生产
incentive system,由创造reward和motivation的系统来最大化利润
通常两者结合使用,

principal-agent problem,owner要最大化公司的利润,manager最大化income而不是公司的利润,有矛盾。
解决办法:给经理ownership,给incentive pay,长期合同

公司类型
1.proprietorship,一个owner,无限责任,firm income是owner的income
优点:容易建立,决策简单,taxed once
缺点:没有consensus来检查决策,owner的财产有risk,owner死了,firm也死了,获得投资难,也很贵。
2.partnership,2个或以上owner,无限责任,按比例分配利润
优点:容易建立,多头决策,死一个partner公司不倒,taxed once
缺点:consensus比较难,partner的财产有risk,如果一个partner离开或者死掉,capital会shortfall
3.Corporation,stockholder来own,有限责任,双重tax
优点:有限责任,融资便宜,管理职责可以请专业人士,不限于owner,无限寿命,可以签长期工作合同
缺点:管理结构复杂,双重tax

economic market的种类
perfect competition:很多公司做一样的产品,没有进入门槛,是perfect elastic demand
monopolistic competition:很多公司做微小差别的产品,downward sloping demand curve
oligopoly: 少数几家做一样的或者微小差别的产品,公司间interdependent,巨大的进入门槛,有巨大的规模经济
monopoly:独家,产品没有替代品,高进入门槛

Concentration 的衡量
four-firm:头四家公司的占有率的和,低于40%说明是竞争市场,高于60%说明是oligopoly
herfindahl-hirschman index: 50家最大的公司的占有率的平方和,数字很小说明高竞争度,10000表示monopoly,高于1800说明竞争不激烈
2个方法的局限:没考虑地域,进入门槛和公司合并,还有市场和产业的关系

market coordination, outsourcing
firm coordination, 公司通常可以lower transaction costs,实现economies of scale, scope 和 team production

Cost的种类
fixed cost也叫sunk cost,short run不变,所以做短期决策不考虑。跟时间有关,跟生产level无关
average fixed costs,fixed cost/ouput,output增加,afc减少; 图上是downward slope一直减小
variable cost,工资,原材料。跟时间无关,跟生产level有关
average variable cost: u-shape,先减小再增加
average total cost:所以ATC也先减小再增加
marginal cost:MC也是u-shape,MC交ATC于最低点处。

最大化利润,MR=MC,适用于4种市场。
pure competitive(price taker)market :很多独立的公司造一样的产品,没有进入门槛。perfectly elasic demand(水平线),假如提高价格,就卖不出产品。
price searcher:downward sloping demand curve,找最大化利润的点。
monopoly公司通常价格高,量少。还可以价格歧视
歧视的条件:
1.要downward sloping demand curve
2.不同的需求曲线的客户
3.要能防止resell

monopolisic competition的公司广告费很高,品牌很重要,

进入门槛:规模经济,政府法规限制,专利,资源垄断

oligopoly model
kinked demand curve model, 假设其他方不会追随涨价,但会追随降价
dominant firm oligopoly model,假设一家独大,其他是price taker
囚徒困境,结果是都不妥协。

宏观经济学
marginal revenue,多卖一个得到的revenue
marginal revenue product, 卖掉多投入一个input得到的product的revenue

增加price,增加labor demand,labor替代品降价,减少labor demand
labor demand在长期比短期more elastic

physical capital:实物资产,工厂土地库存设备,需求越高,financial capital需求就越高
公司会买physical capital直到marginal revenue product=cost of financial capital
利率增加,financial capital需求减小。利率由saving决定,saving由future income决定。

renewable resource: perfectly inelastic supply(垂直),价格由demand决定
non-renewable resource,perfectly elastic supply(水平), supply由demand决定,现价是将来价格的折现。

机会成本是跳槽后能earn的,经济租是现在earn-跳槽后earn

business cycle:2个phases contraction 和expansion;2个turning point trough 和 peak
决定因素:real GDP,real income;employment;industrial production;wholesale-retail sales

labor market
rate of employment: 失业人数/劳动力人数
labor force participation rate 劳动力人数/16岁以上人数
employment to population ratio: working age人数 /总人数
aggregate hours:所有雇员全年的总工作时间
real wage rate:money wage 根据price level调节后的

unemployment的种类
1.frictional unemployment 摩擦性失业,跟信息流通不畅有关
2.structual unemployment 结构性失业,跟产业变动,和工人技能有关
3.cyclical unemployment 周期性失业,生产率变动有关,产能没充分利用

inflation 和CPI

aggregate supply 和aggregate demand
SAS,supply 短期对价格的反映
LAS=potential GDP = full employment时的real output
labor数量增加,capital数量增加,技术提高,LAS就增加

AD反映价格和需求量的关系:4个组成:消费,投资,政府采购,净出口
影响因素:对income inflation和profit的期望,财政货币政策,世界经济增长率

长期短期均衡
AD跟LAS的相交点的价格,是long-run equilibrium
短期均衡
output不在full employment GDP上,在下方是recession,上方是inflation

三种学院派思想
1.classical:AD和AS因技术而改变,money wage的调整迅速,tax是回归full employment主要障碍
2.keynesian:AD因预期而改变,会缓慢的从recession到full-employment;建议直接通过货币政策增加AD
3.Monetarist:不可预期的货币政策是偏离full employment的主要因素;建议持续的可预测的货币供应,低边际税率保持价格稳定,最大化real GDP growth

money的作用:medium of exchange;unit of account;store of value
depository institution的作用:create liquidity;financial intermediaries; pool default risk

FED的准备金率,货币乘数=1/准备金率
FED的工具:利率discount ra

J 发布

四月 10th, 2008 at 4:05 下午

Notes 习题笔记 Economics

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Concept Checkers P17

  1. 算price elasticity of demand= %ΔQ/ %ΔP ,结果是负数,表示价格下跌,需求增加。 %ΔQ= (Q2-Q1)/[(Q1+Q2)/2]  ,%ΔP= (P2-P1)/[(P1+P2)/2]
  2. 量变化的% > 价格变化的%( Elasticity > 1 ),  是elastic, 反之(0<Elasticity<1) inelastic. elasticity =0, perfectly inelastic demand elasticity =1, unit elastic demand elasticity = ∞, perfectly elastic demand
  3. 三个因素影响商品的price elasticity of demand:替代产品,消费者的消费比例,价格变化的时间
  4. if elastic, 小的ΔP导致大的ΔQ,反之亦然
  5. 替代产品的cross elasticity 是positive,因为价格涨价,sub的量增加。 劣等品的income elasticity是negative, 因为收入增加,inferior量减小。
  6. income elasticity = %ΔQ/ %ΔIn, normal good, 是positive,inferior good 是negative。
  7. luxury good, %ΔQ > %ΔIn; income 增加,Q大量增加; necessity, income增加,Q小量增加。
  8. inferior good, income增加,Q减小。
  9. E= %ΔQ/ %ΔP, 注意符号
  10. 影响elasticity of supply 的因素是 possible substitute productive resources替代性的生产资源 和 time frame for the supply dicision供应决策时间。 *稀缺资源才能生产的商品,是low 或者zero的elasticity of supply. 大众化生产的商品就high elasticity of supply *Momentary supply, 季节性商品如水果蔬菜perfectly inelastic momentary supply; 长途电话perfectly elastic  momentary supply *Long-run supply, 多年后所有技术措施都反映到生产中 *Short-run supply, 部分技术措施的反映,比如短期雇工的数量变化,买新设备
  11. Linear demand curve上面,unitary elasticity(-1) 上方的点,P上升,Total revenue下降。反之亦然。

Text Book 2 P 28 有关系表。 Concept Checkers P29

  1. consumer surplus=愿意pay-需要pay
  2. marginal benifit > marginal cost, 增加生产,可以improve efficiency
  3. the symmetry principle, a competitive market allocates resouces fairly as long as the same rules apply to all participants.
  4. 非管制的竞争市场,consumer surplus+producer surplus 最大化
  5. producer surplus=商品价格-机会成本
  6. 同2
  7. efficient allocation 的obstacke, monopoly producers; taxes,quotes and subsidies; public goods and common resourses; price regulation.
  8. 假如均衡价格和Q都不变,demant curve变 less elastic,comsumer surplus 增加。

Concept Checkers P44

  1. black market, outside the legal sytem, 超过price ceilings
  2. rent control 是 price ceiling
  3. minimum  wage 是price floor
  4. 均衡量以上的quotas对output无效
  5. subsidy shifts the supply curve down. 新均衡量在marginal cost>marginal benifit上,导致过量生产的economic loss
  6. quota在均衡量以下,导致marginal benefit > marginal cost
  7. penalty to seller 大于buyer,supply curve 会shift up 大于demand curve shift down,导致价格上升,需求下降。
  8. price ceiling只在均衡价格以下有效
  9. 最低价是price floor,以前多用于农产品。
  10. tax incidence,供求双方都支付tax,不管对谁征税。

Concept Checkers P59

  1. total revenue = the sum of all opportunity costs,economic profits =0
  2. economic prifit = total revenue – opportunity costs (explicit +implicit costs)
  3. technological efficiency, 固定的output用least amount of input economic eficiency,固定的output用least lowest possible cost
  4. HHI,50家最大的市场占有率%的平方,1000-1800中等竞争,大于1800基本没竞争 four-firm concentration ratio,小于40%算竞争市场,大于60%算oligopoly
  5. the implied rental rate 包括 economic depreciation and foregone interest.
  6. HHI>1800或ffcr>60%就是oligopoly
  7. 减小principle-agent problem的方法,ownership incentive; incentive-pay system; long-term employment contacts. use of a company jet是矛盾的表现之一
  8. economies of scale/ scope/ term production, 就是没有 economies of cost
  9. 同3

Concept Checkers P72

  1. MP>AP,MP在AP上方, MP=AP相交 ,MP<AP,MP在AP下方
  2. MP最大,MC最小
  3. marginal product = ΔP/Δinput
  4. MP=AP, 之后,AP>MP
  5. ATC=AVC+AFC, AFC越来越小,AVC是U型,MC交于ATC最低点
  6. ATC与AVC之间距离越来越小,因为AFC越来越小
  7. AFC开始时减小很快,越来越小,越来越平
  8. Economies of scale发生在ouput增长率大于cost增长率,longrun average cost curve slopes downward.
  9. the law of diminishing returns: 其他资源固定,越多某种资源投入,ouput越多,但output增长率减小。
  10. AP最大,AVC最小,MC增加中,MP减小中

Concept Checkers P94

  1. a monopolist 会expand生产 知道MR=MC,根据demand curve
  2. monopolists 要search for the profit maximizing price 因为垄断没有根据demand来的perfect information 完全竞争公司只能接受价格和决定最大化利润的量。
  3. natural monopoly存在于economies of scale are great. 巨大的规模经济中存在多个生产者是没效率的。
  4. 同1
  5. 卖家要想有效的价格歧视,要face a downward-sloping demand curve,要有2种以上消费群体(不同的demand curve),要防止resell,并不需要了解所有客户的需求弹性。
  6. 一种monopoly随着ouput增加ATC减少,叫做nature monopoly
  7. 监管机构要求垄断者用average cost pricing,目的是ATC curve跟market demand curve相交

Concept Checkers P107

  1. monopolistic competetion 的key characteristic是differentiated products.还有这些特点,大量的独立卖家;公司在价格质量市场营销方面竞争;低进入门槛,随意进出。
  2. monopolistic competetion的需求曲线是elastic,因为有很多替代产品,一种产品价格提高,销量会下降
  3. 最大化利润P×Q-TC
  4. monopolistic competetion 和complete competition的共同点:低门槛随意进出,长期0经济利润,MC=MR点的output。不同的是,完全竞争不需要投大量广告在differentiated products上。
  5. oligopolistic industry的公司有interdependence,一家的价格变化会影响其他。没有很多seller,没有低进入门槛,没有不规模经济。
  6. the kinked demand model假设市场上每个公司都相信在某个价格上,增加价格比减少价格更elasic,一根折线。上段斜率小,下段斜率大;
    Dominant firm model,假设其中一个寡头比其他有明显的成本优势,可以决定价格,其他是接受价格。
  7. 囚徒困境game theory的结果,双方都不妥协。基于对方的决策来做决策。

Concept Checkers P119

  1. marginal revenue product是1个单位的input产出的additional output,卖掉得到的revenue
  2. marginal revenue product跟demand curve of the resource一致。因为公司要最大化利润,用variable resource直到price=marginal revenue product.
  3. 价格和产出,效率最大化
  4. demand of labor是derived demand,最终产品和服务需求上涨,价格就上涨,增加MRP for labor
    劳动生产率下跌,劳动力增加,替代性技术降价都不是labor需求增加的原因。
  5. 替代性的机器设备降价导致相关劳动力需求下降.
  6. 工厂要扩大产能,physical capital和financial capital的需求都要增加。因为要借钱买设备。
  7. 最大化利润,使MRPcapital的现值=cost of capital
  8. MRP of physical capital决定financial capital的需求。利率和消费者收入决定FC的supply
  9. 对于可再生资源,supply跟price独立,所以是perfectly inelastic
  10. economic rent是目前earn的比可能换个工作earn的多的部分。
    opportunity cost是可能换个工作earn的。

Concept Checkers P131

  1. phases of business cycle 分为expansion和contraction(recession)
  2. 连续两季度的GDP负增长不是NBER对于recession的定义;employment,industrial production和wholesale and retail sales是NBER的定义。
  3. 失业率是labor force中失业的百分比
  4. 失业率跟经济周期反向。expansion,失业率低,recession,失业率高。
  5. discouraged worker是失业且不找工作的人。属于working age population,但不属于labor force和number of unemployment
  6. 摩擦性失业,原因之一是就业者和雇主之间信息昂贵。确实有工作空位,但很难找到。
  7. 结构性失业,经济环境改变导致某些低技术工种小时,同时产生新的工种。
  8. unemployment rate=number of unemployed/ number in the labor force, 家庭主妇,学生,退休人员,残疾人都不算失业。
  9. real wage rate是每小时劳动的购买力
    nominal wage rate是每小时劳动的money value
    productivity是每小时劳动的产出,是决定real wage rate的一个因素
    total labor compensation是real wage rate的一个衡量。

Concept Checkers P143
Concept Checkers P152
由于网络问题,记录丢失……不补了。

Concept Checkers P162

  1. money demand schedule 斜向右下,因为opportunity cost of hloding money增加,人们就hold less money
  2. money supply schedule垂直,因为money supply 跟interest rate 独立。
  3. money demand 随收入增加而增加,因为inflation或real output增加了。
  4. 央行发央票,会减少现金money supply,导致bank reserve减少,money supply curve 左移。公司和个人会卖证券,降低证券价格,提高利率。
  5. full employment的情况下,增加money supply会导致价格上涨,工资上涨。
  6. money supply 增加伴随nominal GDP增加,velocity减小伴随nominal GDP减小。除非知道绝对数字,否则无法判断real GDP和价格的影响。
  7. 根据quantity theory of money,real output和velocity跟money supply是独立的。所以money supply增加,导致价格上升。
  8. Nominal GDP = money supply × velocity

Concept Checkers P173

  1. 算每年的inflation
  2. demand-pull effect or cost-push effect 导致的inflation,AD或者AS的改变必须重复或者持续。
    demand-pull导致AD向右,cost-push导致AS向左。
  3. unanticipated inflation导致固定利率借贷者better off,雇员 worse off。anticipated inflation会反映在利率中,所以前者不会better。
  4. 高预期inflation导致提早消费,以免贬值。让货币失去store of value功能,打击投资,增加回报的不确定性。
  5. unexpected change in inflation导致,unemployment rate反向,向short-run philips curve.
  6. unemployment rate在natural rate时,GDP growth在potential rate。在此刺激AD,短期内使output增加,减小unemployment,提高价格。
  7. 长期来看,unemployment rate恢复到natural rate。证明higher inflation对natural rate of unemployment没有好处。
  8. real interest rate = nominal interest rate – inflation

Concept Checkers P183

  1. income taxes reduce the incentive to work. 减税刺激多工作,增加potencial GDP.增加消费税同样减低工作激情
  2. Laffer curve说,税率低的时候,加税增加税收;税率高的时候,加税较少税收。
  3. 降低投资:lower saving rate,fiscal crowding out,capital income加税。federal budget surpluses增加投资。
  4. law-making delay
  5. recognition delay, 减少economic reports的time lag
  6. income tax增加导致labor supply curve向左,导致lower equilibrium quantity of labor,导致lower potencial GDP
  7. 增加政府开销,同时加同样数量的税;开销的效果要大于tax,所以是正效应,导致higher growth
  8. 为减缓GDP衰退,实行减税,但减税只有部分用于消费;同时balance budget又要拿出tax这么多的钱。所以是负效应。减税不能减缓GDP衰退

Concept Checkers P198

  1. Fed的首要目标是maintain price stability,inflation 0-3% ,这样可以鼓励储蓄,提高long-run economic growth.
  2. feedback rule policy, 根据经济情况制定货币政策,衰退时增加AD,扩张是减少AD
    fixed rule policy,不根据经济情况。
  3. 衰退时,Fed通常增加money supply,降低interest rate,正确的话,会增加AD curve,导致price增加。
  4. full employment的时候,potencial GDP=real GDP,unemployment rate=nature rate。这时减少money supply,导致inflation 降低,和AD的增长率降低。同时inflation预期不变,而wage也会反映预期的inflation,SRAS短期不变。但会导致recession,使real GDP减小,unemployment 增加
  5. new monetarist feedback rule基于quantity theory of money,通过slowly调整货币政策引导GDP和调节inflation
    new keynesian feedback rule基于GDP gap,和inflation gap,反映更快。
  6. productivity shock 减少potential real GDP, 提高price. 对于刺激AD的policy,不但不会expand real GDP,而且会使price涨得更多。

Self test 笔记

  1. 微小差距的产品:oligopoly和monopolistic competition都满足
    低竞争门槛和竞争者之间互相影响:monopolistic competition
  2. 低于均衡量(MC=MR)的output是没有利益最大化, 高于均衡量是lossing money
  3. subsidy 使supply  curve右移,导致output大于均衡量,resource没效率。Quota不会导致没效率
  4. producer surplus存在price比opportunity cost大。当consumer surplus和producer surplus最大,economic gains to society最大。perfectly elastic demand curve,没有consumer surplus
  5. y是x的替代品,z是x的补充品,但不代表y是z的补充品
  6. 预期的通货膨胀导致工资上涨,导致SAS会减少,同时估计立刻消费,导致AD增加。
  7. 消费税对GDP是负效应,减少real value of labor hour,导致less labor ouput
    GOV deficits导致crowding out效应,减少capital投资减少potential GDP
  8. 非预期的通货膨胀对borrower有好处,对employer有好处。
  9. fixed-rule monetary policy 以固定rate增加money supply。
  10. 增加AD增加price,SAS,增加real GDP
  11. 工资增加不会增加LRAS。技术提高,资本增加,减税都会增加GDP
  12. full employment 时,cyclical unemployment=0,structural和 frictional unemployment是正数。

J 发布

四月 8th, 2008 at 2:58 下午